Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices (vol.1)

These threads, which originate in different regions and different periods, entwine and influence each other creating a tradition with inner diversity and considerable flexibility.”[i] Using this quote as a platform, Fowler demonstrates that Hinduism is not a single phenomenon and scholarship should not treat it as such. Her volume offers the ability to engage with the religion and its multidimensionality and diversity in an accessible and comprehensive way. This is achieved by her striking a balance between examining textual and historical Hinduism and contemporary popular beliefs and practices of the religion. Although she specifically directs her work to students, it is an engaging book that would be appreciated by anyone interested in learning about one of the world’s oldest religions.

 

The Fundamentals of Hinduism: Philosophies and Societies 

Chapter One, Fundamental Beliefs, provides a necessary foundation of understanding the basic elements of Hinduism. Fowler explains that the chapter is brief because she explores these concepts in much greater depth throughout the course of the book. Before she outlines the fundamentals of Hinduism, Fowler first addresses the flexibility of the religion, a quality that can be ascertained from studying it, but is rarely ever highlighted in scholarship. She states that Hindus can choose to be monotheists, polytheists, pantheists, atheists, agnostics, dualists, monists, or pluralists. In addition, they may or may not follow strict standards of moral conduct, spend much time on everyday religious rituals, or attend temple services. Belief in demons, magic, divination can accompany profound theological doctrines. But despite this flexibility, Hinduism does have a sound foundation of principles, which the rest of the chapter is dedicated to. It begins by examining the Hindu concept of God. The author confronts the pre-conceived notion that, because Hinduism has a multiplicity of deities, it does not have one that is the Absolute. However, through a study of the religious text the Upanishads, Fowler demonstrates that Brahman plays the role of the Absolute. Everything in existence is through Brahman, including Hinduism’s other deities. The chapter continues to talk about the cycle of reincarnation (samsara), karma and its laws of cause and effect, doing what is morally right (dharma) to avoid achieving bad karma, and liberation (moksha) from the cycle of reincarnation. 

Chapter Two, Scriptures, looks at textual foundations of orthodox Hinduism, as well as texts that are accepted by popular Hinduism. With such an abundance and wealth of scriptures, Fowler manages to give a concise description of the different types, as well as a wonderful understanding of each one that does not overwhelm the reader. The first section focuses on the ancient writings, the Vedas (‘Wisdom’ or ‘Knowledge’). It is subdivided into four parts, each dedicated to a different Veda. Next is a discussion on the Upanishads, which, she points out, provides the major principles of Hinduism that are present today, for example, karma, reincarnation, foundations of yoga, and paths of devotion that are directed to major deities.  Fowler then examines two writings that concern dharma, which is followed by a look at Hinduism’s two major epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Although it is unclear, at this point the chapter shifts to look at popular texts of Hinduism, such as the Bhagavad Gita, and the Puranas, which delves into Hindu philosophy and insight on the human experience through charming mythologies. The chapter concludes with a section dedicated to devotional songs and poetry, as well as Tantra texts. 

In the third chapter, Class and Caste: Varna and Jati, Fowler makes clear that her discussion here is mainly a religious one; she does not examine the anthropological, sociological, and political aspects of class and caste. Admittedly, this is refreshing, as recent studies seem to almost always neglect the religious perspective. The chapter looks into the religious origins of class and caste, and heavily relies on textual and scriptural evidence to provide the reader with a greater understanding of the development of these ‘societal divisions’. Like the previous chapters, Fowler breaks down her talk into separate and concise sections. She ends the chapter by looking at the contemporary issues of class and caste, and how these classifications, which grew from religious origins, are affecting Indian society, politics, and economies, as well as Western views of the subcontinent. 

Chapter Four, Stages of Life Asrama-Dharma, is somewhat of an extension of the previous chapter. Class and caste dictated the ways in which one could live life according to one’s birth and one’s nature. Asramas also provide direction, assisting the devotee with achieving goals that related to various stages of his or her life, particularly through dharma. Like in Chapter Three, Fowler first sheds light on the religious origins of the system of asranas and of dharma, before dividing the chapter into a study of each stage of life and its affiliated goals.

  

A Pantheon of Gods and Goddesses 

The next three chapters are dedicated to various gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. Chapter Five, Gods and Goddesses: Siva, examines the most complex Hindu god. Fowler states that the difficulty in understanding Siva and his being comes from the diversification of mythologies surrounding the god and his connection to metaphysics and philosophy. There are not only many myths surrounding Siva, but they also vary from one location to another, from sect to sect, and from ancient to popular accounts. There are also incredible inconsistencies in the same myth recorded in different places, at different times, and or different people. Because of the highly entangled nature of these myths, Fowler says that she will not recount myths in her discussion of Siva (and of her treatment of Hindu deities as a whole) unless they are relevant to an underlying point of her argument, because myths “do not teach, they generate [an] experience”.[ii] The author then looks at the proto-Hindu and ancient forms of Siva, Siva’s forms as a linga and hermaphrodite, Siva’s symbols, Siva’s ‘entourage’, and dances associated with his Nataraja form. Although helpful, Fowler’s look at the Hindu god is very basic, and neglects to look at, and at times even mention, all of his manifestations and forms. While she does encourage the reader to explore material on Siva further, she is referring to his mythologies, rather than other aspects of his being. 

Chapter Six, Gods and Goddesses: Sakti – The Divine as a Female is a much more fulfilling chapter than the previous. Hindu female deities is a complicated subject, due to their interconnectivity with one another, the relationship between their manifestations, and their origins with the Mother Goddess. However, Fowler manages to make the subject accessible to the reader, by focusing on the conceptual beliefs in female goddesses. She first examines the Mother Goddess and her development, as she is the point of origin of all other goddesses. From here, the discussion unravels into a study of the other deities: Sati, Parvati, Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, and Sarasvati. There are two great highlights of this chapter; first, is the author’s acknowledgement of local and lesser-known goddesses; and second, is her section on the role of the goddess and the practice of Tantra, which demonstrates the importance of divine female power to the Hindu religion. 

The Hindu god Visnu is the focus of Chapter Seven, Gods and Goddesses: Visnu, Krishna, and Radha. Fowler states that Visnu can be credited for providing a means for monotheistic devotion, as each of Visnu’s ten incarnations have created their own following. The tenants of Vaisnavism are much more personal than metaphysical, and relates more to the human experience, making it more relatable and appealing to devotees. The author uses Visnu’s accessibility to fuel her discussion of the deity, and creates a much more comprehensive and wholly examination of the god than she did with her treatment of Siva. She begins with a section on Visnu, which is subdivided into portions on the metaphysics surround the god and his iconography. The next section is on Visnu’s ten avatars, which, although helpful, could have been more developed. The chapter concludes with a look at one of Visnu’s most popular avatars, Krishna, who has his significant and substantial following of worshippers. Fowler looks at Krishna’s birth and life, his role in the Bhagavata-purana, and his relationship with his consort, Radha. While Radha has a section dedicated to her, which is both important and necessary, it is surprising that the author does not provide one for Visnu’s other beloved avatar, Rama. The author does refer to Rama, a deity in his own right like Krishna, throughout her text, but her focus on Visnu seems incomplete without a proper, more focused look at him. In addition, Fowler should have also included either in this chapter or in Chapter Five, a section on the hybrid form of Siva and Visnu; which has a significant impact on the worship of both deities and represents Hindu philosophical concepts, particularly those concerned with duality. Furthermore, it is again surprising that Fowler neglects to have a chapter on the god Brahma, who is part of the Hindu Trimurti (‘Trinity’) with Siva and Visnu. Although this section of the book could have been more substantial and multi-dimensional in its treatment of the Hindu gods and goddesses, it does provide the reader a good foundation of understanding the diverse and dynamic pantheon of deities.

 

Rituals and Practices 

The final portion of the book looks at rituals, practices, and traditions associated with Hinduism. Chapter Eight, Ritual in the Home and Community: Worship, focuses on Hindu worship practices. What is appreciated is that the author does take the time to investigate the role of images in worship, the iconic and aniconic, and confronts the Western connotations surrounding the word ‘idol’. Fowler then attempts to define two forms of Hindu worship, puja and darshan. Because of their complexity, these practices will not summarized here, but it can be said that the author does a brilliant job in explaining their intricacies. Not only does she discuss and define puja, but she compares and contrasts the rituals behind it when it is conducted at a temple, at a shrine, at a home, and by communities. Chapter Nine, Rituals in the Home and the Community: Life Cycle Rites, essentially continues the discussion of Hindu ritual practices, but looks at those that are affiliated with specific points of life, such as rites for conception and pregnancy, birth rites, rites for infancy and childhood, marriage, divorce, and death. Chapter Ten, Women in the Home and Community is a great addition to Fowler’s volume, giving attention to the importance of women in Hindu practice, their status within the religion, and how women are treated and perceived within in the community. Finally, the book concludes with a look at festivals, holidays, and pilgrimages in Sacred Times and Places. The eleventh chapter provides a concise overview of major events and occasions associated with Hinduism, and highlights the diversity and similarity of these celebrations throughout the subcontinent.

 

The Publication 

Jeaneane Fowler’s volume was originally published in 1997. This revised and expanded version is a refreshing and necessary evaluation of the Hindu religion. She is able to conquer the complexities of one of the most multi-faceted religions of the world and present the reader with a comprehensive understanding of it. In addition to the eleven chapters, this book also features a glossary of Sanskrit terms. While it would have been helpful to have more information on the Hindu gods and goddesses, and to include some other deities and manifestations, this book is a great asset to students, scholars, and members of the general public. Volume II, Religious History and Philosophy, will no doubt only augment Fowler’s study of Hinduism as a whole.

 

 

Rachel Parikh, PhD.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

rachel.parikh@metmuseum.org