Carving devotion

Owen states that the relative neglect of the Jain caves can be attributed to two reasons: 1) that the Jain religion is often marginalized in the field of South Asian studies, and 2) the manner in which the rock-cut monuments are studied - in isolated cases that are religiously affiliated. For example, scholars of Indian Buddhism tend to examine only the Buddhist caves, while scholars of Hinduism usually focus their research on the monuments that are linked to India’s primary religion. The author states that the nature of this type of study unfortunately results in the Ellora Caves being denied a holistic study, as well as its acknowledgement as a multi-religious center.

Owen’s volume ambitiously sets out to rectify some of these significant shortcomings in the scholarship of the Ellora caves. She highlights the distinctive nature of Jain art and practice at the site, but does so brilliantly within the context of the Hindu and Buddhist caves. Her distinct study thus sheds light on the under-researched Jain caves while creating an all-encompassing study on the devotional practices and dynamic presence of all three religions at Ellora.

In the Introduction, Owen lays the foundation of her research by providing a concise analysis of Jainism and its role at Ellora. First she describes the caves, with regard to where they are located, how they are carved and decorated, as well as how they were used in practices of worship. In her examination of the latter topic, she informs the reader about the religion itself. Jains venerate a group of twenty-four teachers, Tirthankaras (‘ford-makers’; also known as Jinas, or ‘victors’), who have freed themselves from the cycle of rebirth (Saṃsāra), have obtained enlightenment, and help other humans in achieving the same. She augments this discussion by contextualizing it within a brief breakdown of Jain iconography. This becomes a very useful element to the reader as the volume progresses. Throughout this introductory portion, she provides a literature review to make the reader aware that while there is some scholarship on the subject, there is a clear under-representation of this subject matter.

Understanding the image

The first chapter, ‘Carving the Samavasarana’ (the celestial hall or assembly of the Tirthankaras), focuses on the representation of lay, monastic, and celestial worshippers at two Jain caves. Owen argues that the orientation of these figures strongly suggests that they are the devotees that attend the first sermon of the Tirthankaras in the samavasarana. She supports this claim by comparing the sculptural and painted programs of these two caves to written descriptions of the samavasaranas and those in attendance. Owen demonstrates a striking parallel between what is visually represented in the caves and what is written in the Adipurana, a ninth century work written by monk Jinasena. However, the author also points out that there are instances in which the caves’ imagery deviates from written analyses to create new understandings and experiences for the devotees that use these caves for worship.

Chapter two, ‘Carving the Liberated’, is a wonderfully descriptive and concise iconographical account of the Tirthankara sculptures that are carved in the main shrines of the Jain caves. Although many of these figures, as Owen describes, are larger-than-life, her primary focus is on the royal and divine attributes (astamahapratiharya), such as an elaborate lion-throne and halos, that surround these figures. She continues to investigate the iconographical elements through an examination of various medieval texts that describe these attributes. The intention of this chapter, which Owen doubtlessly achieves, is to demonstrate that the creators of the Jain sculptures struck a fine balance between meticulously following iconographical descriptions in religious codices while also establishing their own artistic models. True to her word, she looks at the use of these divine elements in Jainism within the context of those found in Buddhist and Hindu practices, and how all three are represented at the Ellora site.

Through a plethora of material evidence, from textual resources to the caves themselves, Owen attempts to reconstruct how these sculptured and painted images may have been worshipped in chapter five, ‘Carving Sacred Space’. She explores what types of ritual practices were executed inside Ellora’s Jain caves. For example, she addresses the offering of physical objects to the Tirthankara figures, meditation, prayer, and a ritual known as abhisheka, in which water and other auspicious liquids such as clarified butter (ghee), coconut milk, and the juice of vines, dates, and/or sugarcane, are poured over the image by a designated priest (snapanacarya). In this chapter, she uses textual evidence to establish her argument, consulting a wide variety of religious medieval works. She pays particular attention to a large, upper story cave that was, through her research, doubtlessly used as a ritual center. Through her study of this cave, she looks at how its artistic representations provide us with a better understanding of how the worshipper might have ritually and aesthetically experienced the caves.

New approaches, discoveries, and insights

In chapter three, ‘Carving the Divine’, Owen focuses on the Jain deities that are represented in Ellora’s Jain caves. Here, the author takes a different approach from the other chapters and even the overall study of the deities of South Asia; rather than focusing on their identification, particularly with regard to their names, and even correlations to written works, she considers how these images convey meaning through their artistically represented forms. For example, she looks at how deities of wealth and health visually convey these affiliations. This examination offers a distinct and fresh perspective to the field of South Asian studies, especially with regard to religious iconography. In this way, one can see Owen demonstrate how devotees interact with the site and directly with the objects themselves. As a result, worshippers build direct relationships with the art rather than the art acting as an intermediary between them and the signified religious text. In addition, she investigates the position of these sculptures within the caves to determine if they reveal any insight with regard to their function(s) within the temple, which, again, provides a unique approach to iconographical studies.

It is clear, based on the rhetoric and strength of the argument, that what captured the author’s intrigue in researching the Jain caves at Ellora is the portrayal of human worshippers at the feet of the large Tirthankara figures. A few of these sculptures contain donative inscriptions that identify the worshipper as a specific patron - and this discovery sets the foundation for her fourth chapter, ‘Carving Ellora’s Jain Patrons’. With the analysis of these inscriptions, Owen challenges current Ellora scholarship, which often, and, incorrectly, as Owen demonstrates, attributes the Hindu and Buddhist Ellora Caves to the Rastrakuta kings and the Jain caves to the ninth-century king Amoghvarsa. Through a re-examination of the patronage of the Ellora caves as a whole, she reveals that the assumption that these caves were created under the auspices of Indian royalty might be just that; for, as the result of her research, there is not one inscription in situ that identifies an imperial patron. By highlighting that everyday people also played an integral role in the patronage of art in India through sound evidence, Owen confronts current scholarship on India’s monuments, which typically tends to showcase the roles of royalty as patrons, spectators, and devotees.

The final chapter, ‘Carving a Larger Jain World’, explores a series of caves that were added to the Ellora site between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. These caves have been overshadowed in Ellora scholarship, and Owen demonstrates that they were an important addition for completing the understanding, or a complete picture, of medieval Jain artistic and devotional activities and practices at the site. For example, she talks of the colossal figure of the Tirthankara Parsvanatha, which is still actively worshipped. Her book then wonderfully concludes with the site’s significance to, and role in, Jain worship today.

The publication

Owen’s volume, part of Brill’s Indological Library, is a refreshing and necessary assessment on the presence of Jain religion and art at the Ellora site. Her expertise and thorough research on the intersections between Jain religion, worship and art, brings forth new methodologies and approaches to the study of South Asian religion and iconography. By highlighting the historical and religious meanings and social functions of each art form and art object, Owen provides not only insight into the painted and sculptured works, but also an understanding of Jain religion and culture as a whole. Her brilliant assessment of the Jain caves is accompanied by five maps, four of which provide details and layout of the site, as well as 115 black and white pictures of Jain painted and sculpted works. This book is a prime resource for any scholar or student of South Asian studies, especially those whose focus is on Jainism.

Rachel Parikh, University of Cambridge (rp401@cam.ac.uk)