Maoist Insurgency in Asia and Latin America: Comparative Perspectives
9-11 February 2006
Amsterdam and Leiden
By Dr Satya Shrestha-Schipper, Convenor and Marloes Rozing, Seminar coordinator
Maoist Insurgency in Asia and Latin America: Comparative Studies was organised jointly by the International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS) in Leiden and International Institute for Social History (IISG) in Amsterdam. It was the first international workshop on Maoist movements with participation of both scholars and journalists who witnessed the rise and fall of the movement in their country.
Read also www.peoplesreview.com.np/2006/230206/detail/b1.html
Introduction to the topic
After the demise of Mao Zedong in 1976 most Maoist movements lost power. The Naxalite movement of India fell into chaos and the Khmer Rouge regime was removed from power. Sri Lanka's communist party, the People's Liberation Front (JVP, Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna) joined mainstream politics and Colombian communist parties signed a peace treaty with the central government in the 1990s.
In the early 1990s, the only armed and active Maoist movement was the "Sendero Luminoso" Movement (Shining Path Movement) in Peru. However, in 1992 "Chairman Gonzalo" was captured by the Peruvian security and the movement was discontinued.
In Nepal, however, Maoism was increasing. In 1996 the Communist Party of Nepal, led by Pushpa Kamal Dahal alias ‘Prachand[1] launched their "People's War". The ideology of the CPN derives from the "Naxalite" movement of India and Peru's "Sendero Luminoso". The successes of the Maoists in Nepal revived Maoist activities in other parts of the World.
To better understand the global impact of Maoist movements and the implication on a regional and local level, anthropologists, political scientists, and journalists from Asia, Latin America, and from Europe were invited to discuss Maoist movements in Asia and Latin America at our workshop. They were particularly asked to concentrate their papers on the following themes:
-local political and social context of insurgencies on which those insurrections are evolved/embedded,
-identity and personality of the leaders and their network of leaders,
-role of media in a present day insurgency etc.,
Fourteen papers on Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Cambodia, Peru and Colombia, were presented during three workshop days.
Dr. Saubhagya Shah (Tribhuvan University, Nepal), "Recounting the first blow: Formative violence in the making of the Maoist ‘People's War' in Nepal".
Dr. Shah argued that the " People's War" on 13th of February 1996 was not the beginning of the Maoist insurgency in Nepal, but that insurgency was already in the making right after the introduction of democracy in 1990. After the introduction of democracy, skirmishes between the far left and the Nepali Congress increased in the radical base areas: Rolpa and Rukum. As political violence between the rival groups increased, the government used police forces and violent repression to gain control over the conflict. The government's act led to resistance and radicalisation of the local population. Violence between government forces and Maoists further escalated, which led to the "People's War" in 1996.
Dr Shah stated that there were several factors, actors, and processes that made the state vulnerable to violent politics from 1990s. According to his view, this included the political openness in which the radical groups could legally organise themselves and be involved in politics, the partisan nature of the regime, constitutional ambiguity with regard to the powers of the State, as well as economic deprivation and ethnic discontent.
Mana Ranjan Josse (Journalist, Nepal), "Recent developments in Nepal's Maoist insurgency"
Mr Josse presented a vivid journalistic account on recent political developments in Nepal starting from February 1, 2005, when King Gyanandra took over direct political control. Mr Josse also described the internal power struggle in the Maoist party between Prachanda and Bhattarai and the pact between the Maoists and the Seven Party Alliance, which aimed to overthrow the Monarchy and organise elections for a constituent assembly.
Mr. Josse raised questions as to why the Indian government and Western countries were supporting the SPA-Maoist alliance in the name of democracy, when, in fact, in the past they had declared the Maoists to be terrorists and even provided the Nepali government with weapons to battle the Maoists. He speculated that the "democracy card" was being exploited as a convenient cover to affect geo-political transformation not only in Nepal but, ultimately, in Tibet.
Dr. Marie Lecomte-Tilouine (CNRS, France), " ‘We cry while laughing, we laugh while crying'. Daily life in a Maoist village of central Nepal".
Dr Lecomte-Tilouine showed the impact of Maoism on the peasants of Darling after they came under Maoist jurisdiction. Darling is a small village in central Nepal, where Dr Lecomte has been conducting research since late 1980s. The majority of the inhabitants of the village are of Magar ethnic origin.
The changes undergone in the village were not only administrative. Social, cultural, and religious customs were also changed after the Maoists took over.
The second session of the day was devoted to India. Both Indian scholars presented a paper on the Naxalbari Movement, the first revolutionary communist movement in India, which erupted in 1967 in the Naxalbari region of North Bengal. In the early stage of the movement vast numbers of urban middle class students from the city, Calcutta, joined with a vision of people's revolution. Armed violence increased in many districts of the province and in urban areas and the government retaliated with force and repression and declared a State of Emergency in 1975 curtailing all civil liberties. After the State of Emergency was ended in 1977, different Naxalite organisations started collecting the scattered activists. These new groups continued their activities among the rural dispossessed in Andhra Pradesh and Bihar.
Dr. Mallarika Sinha Roy (St. Anthony's college, UK), "Contesting Calcutta Canons: Reading Naxalbari Movement from the point of non-metropolitan women activists".
Dr. Roy showed in her paper that the role of women in the Naxalite movement (1967-75) was neglected not only by academic historiographers but also by the movement itself.
Women, though, played a vital role in the Naxalite movement. They participated in different strategic meetings, led rallies, acted as messengers and provided shelter to the activists. Women also were among the first victims of police firings during a mass meeting of armed peasants in Naxalbari in 1967. Despite the overwhelming participation of women in the movement, the metropolitan intelligentsia considered their involvement in the movement as only ‘supportive'.
Dr. Bela Bhatia (Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), "The Naxalite Movement in Bihar: Why do people join the Movement".
Dr. Bhatia focussed on the local perspective of the Naxalite movement. Although the State and the media have portrayed the ‘Naxalites' as a violent organisation, they have a popular image as well - the image of a radical revolutionary, who is fighting for poor people's rights and establishing a new social order.
The Naxalite movement is continuing to date in central Bihar and has received considerable support from the lower strata of the society (poor and Dalits). These supporters became ‘revolutionaries', because they needed help from the party for justice against oppressors, but not because they believe in Maoist ideology. The Naxalite movement in Bihar can be seen as a compromise between local leaders and peasants. The peasants hope for practical changes but do not care about party ideology and the Maoist leaders are dreaming of revolution.
Dr. Jagath P. Seneratne (Independent researcher, Sri Lanka), "The insurrections of postcolonial Sri Lanka: An assessment in relation to Maoist insurrectionary theory and practice".
Dr Seneratne's presentation showed that Sri Lanka has witnessed three insurrections in the postcolonial period. Two of them were led by the JVP (Janatha Vimukthi Permuna) and took place in the early 1970s and in the late 1980s. Presently, the JVP is part of mainstream politics.
The other insurgency in Sri Lanka is the Tamil secessionist insurrection, which is the most important conflict that the country has witnessed in the postcolonial period. The Tamil movement has been lasting for more than 30 years. Their objective is to create a separate Tamil State. Dr. Seneratne argued that although Tamil secessionists never talk about Maoist ideology, they make use of Maoist guerrilla tactics throughout their struggle against the Sri Lankan State.
Dr. Dominique Caouette (University of Montreal, Canada), "Exploring the revolution of the Communist Party of the Philippines".
Dr. Caouette explored the reason behind the persistence of armed revolution in the Philippines in the 21st Century. He argued that the movement is continuing, because it learned to adapt to changing domestic and international contexts. The Philippine Movement today is one of the most consolidated and institutionalised blocs within the militant left. The members of the Communist Party of Philippines (CPP) and the guerrilla fighters consist of peasants, workers, and the urban poor, very unlike the first generation of CPP members who mostly came from the student movement. Looking at the popularity of the movement, Dr. Caouette argued that the Philippines revolutionary movement may well continue to persist for several years, as the movement responds to political opportunities in a way that ensures its survival.
Dr. Armando Malay Jr. (Asian Center, University of the Philippines), "Revolution against the grain: The Philippine insurgency vis-à-vis civil society".
Dr. Malay Jr. concluded that the Communist Party of Philippines (CPP) has managed to survive for more than 35 years despite a well-developed civil society in the Philippines. He also showed that in the early stage of the insurrection, the success of the movement was very limited.
Dr. Alvaro Villarraga Sarmiento (National Peace Council, Colombia),
"The insurgent experience of EPL and the characteristics of Maoism in Colombia".
Dr. Sarmiento presented a vivid account of his experience as a member of EPL (Ejercito Popular de Liberacion, Popular Army of Liberation) a communist organisation inspired by Maoist Ideology. EPL was founded in 1965 and joined the Communist Party of Colombia as a guerrilla organisation in 1967. After three decades of guerrilla struggle, the Party signed a peace agreement with the government and thus a legal left wing party.
Today the Colombian left movement has entered into mainstream politics as a democratic left. It acts as the opposition and an alternative democratic pole.
Dr. Kees Koonings (Utrecht University, The Netherlands), "Paramilitary in Colombia: Unsavoury military extension or right wing insurgents".
The association of Colombian paramilitary forces with drug trafficking and other forms of organised crime, and their designation as adversaries by the government have raised the question whether the paramilitary should be seen as right wing guerrilla or insurgents.
Dr. Koonings argued that Colombian paramilitary forces are neither. Instead they should be seen as state fragility and governance voids that allowed local economic, political, and criminal power brokers to extend their control through extralegal violence.
Dr Koonings concluded that the paramilitary dominance rests on the intertwining of military, economic, political and mafia-style criminal power. This power was consolidated against the backdrop of partial state fragility and has resulted in the fragmentation of the Colombian State.
Dr. Carlos I. Degregori (Instituto de Estudios Peruanos (IEP), "Peru: Educated youth, Andean peasants and Shining Path".
Dr. Degregori examined how the Shining Path, which began their "People's War" against the Peruvian State in 1980, was able to gain support from the peasants through rural high school and university students. Furthermore, he also showed how the rural people then turned against the Shining Path movement.
In the beginning, the Shining Path was very popular in the rural areas. The "Shining Path" not only taught in schools and worked in the villages, but they also targeted "public enemies", who were exploiting villagers, such as rich people, landlords, thieves etc..
However, when the Shining Path expanded their definition of "public enemies" to include friends and family of the peasants, the party lost its popularity. The peasants started to organised self-defence groups to confront the same people who once said to be fighting for them.
Dr. Marion Fumerton (Utrecht University, the Netherlands), "What makes Peasants counter-revolutionary? Dilemma, paradox, irony in the relationship between peasant and the Shining Path insurgency".
Dr. Fumerton picked up the presentation where Dr. Carlos I. Degregori ended his. Dr. Fumerton tried to understand and address the paradox and irony in the relationship between the Shining Path insurgency and the peasant masses: "why did the very peasant masses in whose interest Shining Path purported to be waging People's War turn against Maoist insurgency, and what were the major consequences of this?"
In 1990, peasant counter-rebellion became part of the national counterinsurgency strategy and was institutionalised in the form of a self-defence committee. While Guzman the SL leader was in prison his guerrilla forces steadily diminished and peasant self-defence groups became stronger, thus sealing the fate of the "People's War" in Peru.
Dr. Hélène Lavoix (SOAS, London), "The Khmer Rouge': From emergence to power. A focus on the dynamics of an insurgency using interactions as explanatory framework".
Dr. Lavoix examined the emergence of communist movement (1954-67) from "unsettled opposition" to "rebellion" that led to a complete communist victory in Cambodia.
Dr. Margaret Slocomb (University of Queensland, Australia), "A Misguided Revolution: the Cambodian Experience".
Dr Slocomb argued in her paper that without the violations of the Second Indochina War and the rightist coup d'etat against the Cambodian monarchy in March 1970, Cambodian revolution would not have taken place in the first place. And, although Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) carried out the revolution in the name of mass rural peasants, the peasants did not benefit from the revolution. Power remained within a handful of leaders.
Dr Slocomb concluded that despite the revolution, conditions in Cambodia did not show any sign of improvement either during the Khmer Rouge rule or in its aftermath. Thirty years after the revolution little has changed in Cambodia compared to their pre-revolutionary status. The gap between urban and rural areas continues to widen and indebtedness to local moneylenders and landlessness is growing.
Conclusion
All papers were of good quality, interesting and the discussions were very fruitful. During the various sessions, MA and PhD students from different universities in the Netherlands and abroad visited the workshop to listen to the presentations and learn or take part in the discussions. Before and after the conference the organizers received many emails from researchers who wanted to know more about the program or wanted to read the papers. Therefore, a selection of the papers may be published in a book so that the presentations at this meeting may be made public. The participants have expressed their interest in a publication, but a publisher still has to be found.
Comparative analysis of the issue enhanced the understanding of the emergence, global spread and persistence of Maoist movements. We hope that a publication will be useful for future conflict prevention/understanding and resolution.
After three days of intense discussions, we have had to conclude that there are no ‘predetermined root causes' that triggered armed Maoist conflict. Through an accumulation of different factors that vary between the respective countries, violent insurgencies emerge. Furthermore, during the discussions some important factors that contribute to Maoist insurgence were identified.
Education:
Maoist movements are initially led by intellectuals. Rural masses are mobilised to achieve the goal of these intellectuals. Masses are convinced hat insurgency is the only way to empowerment, however it is the intellectuals who gain power through insurgence.
Education also played an important role in the development of Maoist ideology in rural areas. Through education young people were made aware of social, political, and economic inequalities in their society. Education and knowledge led to frustration among a generation of educated youth and Maoist ideology was a way to fight this injustice, thus spreading Maoist ideology in rural areas.
Personality and network of the leader:
The personality and the network of the "leaders" were very important in the early stage of Maoist revolution. Base areas of Maoism are developed through networks created in an early stage of the revolution and based on this network the power base of the leaders was consolidated.
All Maoist leaders developed a personality cult that often resembled religious sects in their zeal. Through their cult status, the Maoist leaders could eliminate all opposition and blame ‘traitors' for their mistakes.
Media:
Maoist propaganda used underground and official media to promote their views. Nowadays, cyberspace and internet are also important in the continuation of Maoist struggles in various countries. For instance, Sison, chairman of the Communist Party of the Philippines has lived in exile (the Netherlands) for many years, but he still commands the CPP.
State repression:
State repression of Maoists and rural population has caused the population to resist any involvement from the state and continue their support the Maoist movements.
Acknowledgements
The International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS) would like to thank its co-organizer the International Institute for Social History for organizing the venue and the lunch at the IISH building in Amsterdam on the first day. In addition, we would like to thank our sponsors NWO - Maatschappijwetenschappen (Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research - Social Sciences) and the Research School CNWS for their support.
[1] The Government of Nepal and The Nepal Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) have recently signed the ceasefire and the negotiation between two parties to hold peace talk is underway.